SULTAN MAHMUD II GOLD CEYREK___Turkey - Ottoman Empire___WESTERN REFORMS

Description

14P43
FRASCATIUS ANCIENTS
A BEAUTIFUL GOLD CEYREK OF SULTAN MAHMUD II OF THE TURKISH / OTTOMAN EMPIRE FROM 1808 - 1839 AD .
WHY IS THIS COIN HOLED? - It was a custom in the Ottoman Empire for noblemen and Pasha to demonstrate their wealth by having their wives wear gold coins on their attire (thereby requiring the coins to be holed). The richer the nobleman... The more coins the wife would wear.
THIS GOLD IN THIS COIN IS MINTED AT ABOUT 90% PURITY
Mahmud adopted the cabinet system of government, provided for a census and a land survey, and inaugurated a postal service. In education, he introduced compulsory primary education, opened a medical school, and sent students to Europe. In addition, European dress was introduced.
THE SIZE IS 13.7 MM AND 0.75 GRAMS.
OBVERSE – Toughra and branch within linear and pelleted circular border r
REVERSE – Legend, with mint, AH date and RY; all within linear and pelleted circular border
Mahmud II was the Ottoman sultan(1808–39) whose westernizing reforms helped to consolidate the Ottoman Empire despite defeats in wars and losses of territory. Mahmud was brought to the throne (July 28, 1808) in a coup led by Bayrakdar Mustafa Pasa, of Rusçuk who had first wanted to restore Mahmud’s uncle, the reform-minded sultan Selim III, until he was strangled by the conservatives.
Early in his reign Mahmud faced erosion of his empire in the Balkans. The war with Russia, which had continued fitfully after a truce in 1807, was ended by the Treaty of Bucharest (1812), ceding the province of Bessarabia to Russia. By 1815, Serbia was virtually autonomous and a Greek independence movement was stirring. The Greeks in the Morea (the Peloponnese) rebelled (1821) against Ottoman rule, and Mahmud summoned the assistance of Mu?ammad ?Ali Pasha, governor of Egypt. After massacres on both sides, Ottoman authority in Greece had been partly restored when the united British, French, and Russian fleets destroyed the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet in the Bay of Navarino (1827) in southern Greece. Mahmud then declared war against Russia. The Ottomans were defeated in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–29, and he acknowledged Greek independence in 1830.
Earlier in the year, Mahmud had agreed to appoint Mu?ammad ‘Ali as governor of Syria and Tarsus (in southern Anatolia). In return for his services against the Greeks, Mu?ammad ?Ali demanded (1831) the promised governorship. When Mahmud refused, Mu?ammad ?Ali’s forces under his son Ibrahim Pasha invaded Syria, captured Damascus and Aleppo, routed the Ottoman army at Konya (1832), and advanced on Constantinople. Mahmud sought British aid, but—with France supporting Egypt—Great Britain refused. The Sultan then turned to Russia, which sent its fleet to the Bosporus and signed a treaty of mutual defense (July 1833). Determined to take revenge, Mahmud sent his army against the Egyptians in Syria but was severely defeated at Nizip in 1839, a few days before his death.
The string of military defeats and the separatist revolts earlier had convinced Mahmud of the need for reforms in his army and administration. In 1826 he destroyed the defunct Janissary corps, thousands of its members dying in the ensuing massacre. He abolished military fiefs granted to cavalrymen (1831) and then established a new army, under his direct control, trained by German instructors. Among his administrative reforms, Mahmud adopted the cabinet system of government, provided for a census and a land survey, and inaugurated a postal service (1834). In education, he introduced compulsory primary education, opened a medical school, and sent students to Europe. In addition, the sultan’s right to confiscate the property of deceased officials was abolished, and European dress was introduced.
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